Science Notes

How Are Antibodies Used for Blood Typing?-Lab Report

Introduction: For our final unit we have been learning about vaccines, virus’, blood typing, and immunology.  So to further expand our knowledge and understanding on these topics we have done our own lab to find out my partner, Isaac’s, blood type.

Purpose:  What is my partner, Isaac’s, blood type?

Hypothesis:

If my blood has antigen Rh presenting on the surface of my red blood cells, then the blood will precipitate or clump when placed in anti Rh serum, because the antibodies in the serum will clump around the Rh antigens presented on the red blood cells

Materials:

1 Lancet

bleach water ‘bath’

3 Blood typing slides

gloves

synthetic anti-B serum

synthetic anti-A

synthetic anti-Rh serum

3 different color mixing stick

Procedure:

1. Using the lancet prick the person's finger and get a drop of blood in each well of blood typing slide. Make sure to wear gloves and immediately dispose the lancet!
2. Make a table to put the data in. Should look like this:

Trial	Reaction WIth A (Y/N)	Reaction WIth B (Y/N)	Reaction WIth Rh (Y/N)	Blood type

3. Using a disposable plastic pipette, place a drop of the blood sample in each well of a blood typing slide.
4. Add a drop of synthetic anti-A to the well labeled A.
5. Add a drop of synthetic anti-B serum to the well labeled B.
6. Add a drop of synthetic anti-Rh serum to the well labeled Rh.
7. Using a different mixing stick for each well, gently stir the blood and antiserum drops until well combined. Remember to discard each mixing stick after a single use to avoid contamination to your samples.
8. After stirring carefully examine the liquid in the wells for agglutination. This will determine blood type. If it reacts it is present in the blood.
9. Record the results on the data table

Data Table:

Trial	Reaction WIth A (Y/N)	Reaction WIth B (Y/N)	Reaction WIth Rh (Y/N)	Blood type
Isaac	N	N	Y	O+

Conclusion:

The initial question that begun this lab was, what blood type does Isaac have? To begin the quest of determining Isaac’s blood type we first pricked his finger and put a few drops of blood in each well which contained the anti serums. Next we stirred the blood and serums together until we saw the well with anti antigen Rh started to coagulate. After seeing this my lab members and I came to the synonymous decision that Isaac’s blood type, was in fact, O+.

Paragraph Two:

• Reflect on your original hypothesis, does your data support your original idea or not? Explain your answer. (Paper that earns a 3 or 4 will do this well).
• Discuss sources of error or ways to improve the experiment. What problems did you encounter when conducting the experiment? How could you make this experiment better?
• Discuss the conclusiveness of your results based on the number of trials you did, class results, etc.  Can you be sure about the results of your experiment? Are you confident that someone else following your exact procedure would end up with the same results?

Our original hypothesis we generated was correct and we were certain it would be from the beginning. We were confident our hypothesis would be correct because 38% of humans blood type is O+. The scientific process of when we witnessed the blood coagulate with anti Rh serum was that when Isaac's antibody recognized the the foreign antigens, the antibody signaled for a plethora of antibodies to swarm the foreign antibodies. Next the white blood cells attack the pathogen, this is all part of the innate and acquired immune system. My group and I were very fortunate because we did not experience any significant variables that would skew our data.

Vaccine Views

Video #1

Part 1:

Polio Live Vaccine Sabin	Similarities Between Both	Polio Dead Vaccine Salk
1.Live 2.Attenuated 3.3 doses: 95% effective 4.oral 5.humeral: cell mediated cheap	1. humeral 2.both effective 3. 4. 5.	Killed 1 dose: 90% effective 3 doses: 99% Injected Humeral expensive

Part 2:

What was the purpose of this video? How does the producer of the video use rhetoric to support their purpose? Give three pieces of evidence from the video to support your claim. (Example of evidence can be narrator’s tone, the information presented, information not presented, music played, and/or images shown.)

The purpose of the video is to inform the viewer about the pros and cons about the 2 vaccines. To do this hhe drew images with the notes he wrote, presented background information about the two vaccines and did not have a bias tone by always addressing the negative and positive aspect of both.

Video #2

1. What diseases do vaccines prevent? polio, measles, whooping cough, chicken pox, influenza type b meningitis,
2. What is herd immunity? the resistance to the spread of a contagious disease within a population that results if a high proportion of individuals are immune to the disease, especially through vaccination.

3. What does it mean to be immunocompromised? Having a weak or damaged immune system

4. What kind of people would be considered immunocompromised? Infants and people with cancer

5. How does herd immunity help people who are immunocompromised? It makes it less likely for the disease to be spread.

6. What does it mean to “exempt vaccines”? To not be subjected to taking vaccines

7. What two ways can parents “exempt vaccines”? Religious or personal reseaons

Part 2:

What was the purpose of this video? How does the producer of the video use rhetoric to support their purpose? Give three pieces of evidence from the video to support your claim. (Example of evidence can be narrator’s tone, the information presented, information not presented, music played, and/or images shown.)

We can tell the purpose of this video is to persuade people to get vaccines because the producer gives the pieces of evidence to support this. One is showing the sick infants, two is the child with lukimea, and the last piece of evidence is that he did not allow for people with personal or religious reasons to present their reason why.

Video #3

Part 1:

1. What is the theory behind vaccines?  To take a small amount of a disease so that your body becomes immune and develops antibodies. Then once you are exposed to this disease again your body reacts quickly.

2. What is the stigma around a person who questions vaccines? They they are eaither 100% supporting it or 100% against it.

3. What is “informed consent”? It is when the doctor asks the patient about the benefits and complications of a procedure and alternatives

4. Do doctors give “informed consent” to patients on vaccines? No because they do not properly state the pros and cons of a vaccine.

5. Who controls vaccine laws?

6. What is California’s vaccine law? (Not mentioned in video, please Google it.) The FDA states that it is not required to provide the patient with consent, it depends on the state

7. How much knowledge do doctors receive about vaccines in medical school? They are barely disscused in medical school, they only learn the pros and not the what is in the vaccines and the reasons to not do it.

Part 2:

What was the purpose of this video? How does the producer of the video use rhetoric to support their purpose? Give three pieces of evidence from the video to support your claim. (Example of evidence can be narrator’s tone, the information presented, information not presented, music played, and/or images shown.)

The purpose is to persuade people to not get vaccine and demand for more information about it. Evidence used is the little awareness about needing more investigation on vaccines, the social stigma of pro and anti vaccine person, and that doctors are not taught about what is in vaccines.

Summary Questions:

1. What is the “vaccine war”? The debate between getting vaccines and not.

2. How has media shaped the “vaccine war”? The media has generalized the two categories of pro and anti vaccination people and does not allow the people that chose not to get vaccines to give their reason why making them viewed negatively by society.

3. How has researching vaccine ingredients, learning about the immune system, and watching three videos with separate agendas helped you? Researching what vaccines contain has set me on alert because the components in them can be very toxic. Also watching these videos has raised my suspicions on the reliability on vaccinations that I had because of previous knowledge of them. They have also lead me to believe that before we continue to give vaccinations there is a tremendous amount of research that has yet to be done by doctors and their patients.

Blood Type Lab Demo

Trial	Reaction WIth A (Y/N)	Reaction WIth B (Y/N)	Reaction WIth Rh (Y/N)	Blood type
Isaac	N	N	Y	O+

The blood types in the Introduction are for red blood cells. There are other cell types in your blood though. What are the other cell types and do they have the same blood typing systems?

The other cell types found in blood are white blood cells and platelets. They do not have the same blood typing system

What blood type is needed for a transfusion for a Type O positive patient? 

O+ or O-

What would happen if someone was transfused with an incompatible blood type?  

If they were to receive the wrong blood type they may have a potentially fatal reaction because your immune system would attack the wrong blood.s

Role of Phagocytes in Innate or Nonspecific Immunity

so that bad things dont enter body

(proteins viruses bacteria, basically any disease= pathogens

both 1 and 2 line innate(non specific) 

they get rid of all types of bacteria

1 line of defence

to keep pathogens out

ex: skin, oils, mucus membrane, stomach acids

2 line of defense: what happen when it enters body

inflammatory response: blood flow to area, puss, etc

brings cells to fight the pathogen

'bringing stuff to the fight'

Phago cytes= class of cell that can eat up pathogens

is part of inflammatory response 

when phago cyte encounter foreign bacteria 

their 'sensors' and the invading pathogens 'sensors' connect

phagocyte wraps around pathogen

then bacteria becomes completely engulfed

once fully engulfed becomes=phagzome

then the phagocyte becomes broken up into small parts

small piece of bacteria is attached to other proteins

becomes major histocompatibility complex

bonds with peptide

antigen= protein/peptide chain that is dealt with in immune system

neutrophils= fast and abundant

macrophages=

deudritic cell= best activators of specific immune system

Vaccine Ingredient Vocabulary

Word	Part of speech	Definition	Example
Vaccine	noun	A liquid substance to stimulate the production of antibodies and provide immunity against one or several diseases
Preservatives	noun	A substance or a chemical that is added to products such as food beverages plants etc. to prevent decomposition by microbial growth or by undesirable chemical changes.	phenol
Adjuvants	noun	A chemical added into a vaccine to help increase the body’s immune response so vaccines are effective and last longer	Aluminium salts
Stabilizer	noun	Keeps the vaccine potent during transportation and storage	gelatin
Cell culture materials	noun	Used to grow vaccine agents	Egg protein
Inactivating ingredients	noun	Used to kill viruses or inactive toxins	formaldehyde
Antibiotics	noun	Used to prevent contamination by bacteria	neomycin

What are Viruses? How do they work?

• virus=complex collection of organic matter thatis able to self replicate
• mostlty have shell of protein
• inside have DNA or RNA
• enzymes to replicate
• it is a piece of genetic info
•  microscopic
  injest and inhale millions per seconds
  not all viruses bad

Steps

1. must inhabit a cell to replicate
2. virus uses protein code with molecular receptors to bind with membrane of a cell
3. essential bc determines which cell they can infect
4. one combined uses 7 dif biological pathways to fore cell to either..
5. *accept their genetic material
6. *take in entire virus
7. when in cell...
8. *virus uses molecular arsenol to hijack cell's protein manufacturing system
9. now virus in cell's dna
10. cell continues to replicate (viruses) DNA
11. then so many created starts to take over protein maufacturing ribosomes
12. cell so full of viruses it bursts
13. they all spread to replicate again

Vaccines

Polio

• 9 ingredients
• 6 are safe
• 3 toxic in high quantities
• suspicious: M-199 has very limited research

DTaP

• treats tetnis and pertesis
• 15 ingredients
• 10 toxic
• has aluminium phosphate--> same in makeup, soil and paper
• suspicious: Latham mediums

HIB (Haemophilus influenza type B)

• ​HIB treats influenza
• 12 ingredients
• Salt, sugar, lactose
• Milk based proteins modified Mueller and Miller medium could potentially be toxic
• Suspicious: synthetic mediums had limited mediums

Hepatitis B

• Brand #1 has 5 ingredients
• Brand #2 has 9 ingredients
• Aluminum Hydroxide combined with Kidney failure can be fatal
• Suspicious: ​Mineral salts have limited research

Hepatitis A

• Cures liver failure caused by feisis
• 16 ingredients
• Fetus sack of aborted babies is used in this vaccine
• Sodium Chloride, and Antibiotics are toxic in large quantities
• Suspicious: Amorphous Aluminum Hydroxyphosphate sulfate.
• 
  

Varicella/Chickenpox/Varivax

• 15 ingredients
• Sucrose and Hydrolyzed gelatin were toxic
• suspicious: Human embryonic lung cell cultures, guinea pig cell culture, fetal bovine serum (baby cow serum)

HPV

• Takes away warts and prevent genetal infections
• 10 ingredients
• Amorphous Aluminum Hydroxyphosphate can go into the wrong blood stream and cause brain neuro changes
• suspicious: Sodium borate, Mineral Salts, vitamins
  
  

Extra Notes
*Sodium Chloride is found in almost every single one of these vaccines

*benign: not toxic

*

Science Assessment #7 Revamp

Credibility: This is a credible video because she has a Ph.D. in Microbiology & Immunology which means that the information she shares is correct.

Summary: 

Sketchnote:

Credibility: He has previously taught Physics, Chemistry, Astronomy, Environmental Science and Earth Systems/Space Science to his high school students. His background in Environmental Science proves that he is a credible source to learn about this topic.

Summary:

Sketchnote:

Fossil Fuels Teach Back by students

Fossil fuel = a natural fuel formed millions of years ago from the remains of living organisms.

1. Oil
• The majority of plants and animals that form oil are tiny pieces of zooplankton and algae
• Diatom - the main organism in oil
• Collected from under the ground from drills
• Sand and acid force oil out of its reservor and up pipes 
• The oil extracted has to be refined before it can be used
• Refinment - To purify
• Common products with coal in it: rubber, perfume, asphalt, paint, ink, crayons 
• 394.8 million gallons of oil produced by the US everyday
• Oil can cause explotions if caught on fire
• Releases CO2 and SO2, both toxic chemicals
• Oil spills kill thousands of organisms 
2. Coal



A student adding heat to clay, representing one of
the key factors in creating coal.

• A black or dark-brown substance consisting of vegetable matter
• Needs natural gas to form
• Plants submerged cannot decompose without oxygen, therefore they just slowly are covered in sediment
• Types of coal - peat, lignite, subbituminous, bituminous, and anthracite
• Peat - all the plant matter that decomposed underwater
• Lignite - peat subjected to more heat and pressure
• Subbituminous and Bituminous - Same but subjected to less heat and pressure
• Anthracite - takes longer to form and is the most efficient type of coal (stage before a diamond)
• Primarily used for heat an electricity
• 2,400,000 tons of coal mined in 2015
• 1.7 billion tons of CO2 emitted by coal plants in the U.S. in 2015
• China uses/has the most coal
• CO2 (emitted by coal) breaks down the atmosphere
3. Natural Gas
• Fracking causes air pollution and water pollution as well as global warming
• Hydraulic fracturing - the process of extracting natural gas from mines via highly pressurized water
• Hydraulic fracturing causes methane (natural gas) leaking
• Causes contamination in water when the methane leaks into it
• Methane can actually ignite in water
• Fracking sites contaminate water nearby
• The rocks that get punctured can cause leaks into the groundwater
• Storage tanks leak 9% of the methane within because of the high pressure
• Basically all the equipment dealing with methane causes leakages
• Natural gas becomes more potent over time, although it starts off less toxic than CO2
• Fracking can also cause earthquakes because of the creation of cracks in the Earth

Fracking

• bad bc contaminates water 

• environmental destruction: methane accounts for 9% of gas pollution

• when methane driven out of well lot of leakage 

Key Vocab

hydraulic fracturing:the forcing open of fissures in subterranean rocks by introducing liquid at high pressure, especially to extract oil or gas.

• Groundwater:water held underground in the soil or in pores and crevices in rock

• Contamination: the action of something becoming impure by polluting or poisoning
• Export-when you take products and sell them overseas
• fossil fuels- hydrocarbons that became oil and gasses over millions of yrs bc of heat and preasure
• energy dependence-not needing to import anything
• environment
• all energy sources flawed
• non renewables: oil natural gass coal propane nuclear 
• renewable: wind solar geothermal hydro biomass
• economy
• coal mostly used in china
• Russia Saudi Arabia Iraq use most oil

Environmental impacts of fossil fuels

Where Fossil fuels come from

The sponge and leaves at the bottom represent decomposed organic material. The lid's pressure represents what would happen in reality.

• Air pollution:the presence in or introduction into the air of a substance which has harmful or poisonous effects.
• global warming:a gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth's atmosphere generally attributed to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and other pollutants.
• 
  
• : the pollution and discharge of something especially gas or radiation

coal

• last 100 to 300 yrs 
• can lead to smog, acid rain, toxins in the environment
• when coal burned gives of mercury, arsenic and lead

Oil 

• when petroleum burned give off CO2 sulfur dioxide nitrogen oxide and many more
• sulfur dioxide in acid rain
• oil spill destroy the insulating ability of fur bearing mammals and water relevancy

Gas 

• give off methane, ethane and propane
• main contributor of CO2 = cars

fossil fuel info

• formed by decomposed organic matter 
• what create fossil fuel: high heat intense, pressure and time
• renewable resource: a substance that can be replenished just as fast as it is being drawn out and used
• fossil fuels=not renewable
• energy efficiency-the corresponding amount of energy produced by a given amount of fuel
• how much we use: equivalent of 11 billion tons of oil in fossil fuels
• expected to run out of fossil fuels by 2088
• clean energy source: an energy source that does not pollute the atmosphere when used
• not using less harmful fossil fuels  because less energy efficient

Ecology Vocab 3

Fauna	noun	the animal life in an area	animals
flora	noun	plant life in an area	plants
Food web	noun	many food chains put together to show how energy flows through the ecosystem	Food web for park nature
food chain	noun	the order which animals feed on plants and other animals (shows how energy flows from producer consumer to decomposer)	Aquatic food chain
population	noun	all members of one species that live in one area	sea otters
predator	noun	an animal that hunts kills and eats other animals	lion
prey	noun	an animal that is hunted killed and eaten by a predator	bunny
producer	noun	an organism that can create its own food	plants do photosynthesis
primary consumer	noun	animals that eat primary producers; they are also called herbivores	giraffe
secondary consumer	noun	animals that eat primary consumers. They can be carnivores and omnivores	duck
tertiary consumers	noun	a carnivore at the top of the food chain that feeds on other carnivores an animal that feeds only on secondary consumers	great white shark

Fossil Fuels

Carboniferous period 360 to 286 mill yrs ago the land was covered in swampss they died decomposed under layers of minerals

dif types of fossil fuels formed depending on organic matter temp time and pressure conditions

3 types of fossil fuels coal oil and natural gas

coal formed by hardened plants

oil formed by small organisms

natural gas same as oil but exposed to more heat and pressure

fossil fuels have high energy sources

can make many dif things

Ecology Vocab 2

decomposers	noun	An organism such as bacteria that breaks down dead matter and returns nutrients to soil	fungus
estuary	Noun	A body of water where freshwater and saltwater ecosystems merge together (marine and freshwater ecosystems will be present here)	River meet ocean
habitat	noun	A place or surrounding where an organism normally lives	Red fox
herbivores	noun	An organism that only eats plants	deer
host	noun	Living organism on which a parasite lives	Mice host of tics
Limiting factor	noun	Something in an environment that keeps the population of an organism from increasing as much as it could	deforestation
niche	noun	The habitat that supplies everything needed for a species to thrive on	ocean
omnivores	noun	A consumer that eats both plants and animals	human
parasite	noun	An organism that lives in or one another organism(called the host)	Mistletoe in tree

How to Create a Graph

How to create it

go to drive

press new

press sheets

Other extras

column A1 will be first set of data

to identify independent variable and dependent

I is changing

D is observed

always have THE UNITS

start at top and label each column needed

put units in parenthesis

highlight the info and go to file then insert then chart

go to chart types

if cant see all labels of grass make the font smaller

Water Station Rotation Lab

What is in the water we drink

Testing bacteria, lead, pH, pesticides, and nitrate in tap water.

Tap water comes from rivers sewers ponds and ground. 2% is potable, potable means clean/ drinkable.

Chlorine

toxic pale green gas

kills bacteria and microorganisms

Micro organisms are fungus and algae/ small organisms.

harmful bc it reacts w other elements making sub compound

lead

when freshly cut black

gets into water through lead piping

corrosive: easily tarnished

how it affects the environment through air pollution

Pond's bacteria

Macroscopic anything alive that u can see wo a microscope

Microscopic:

zooplankton: Free floating plants

Photoautotroph organisms producing their own food like photosynthesis

Zooplankton: free floating animals

heterotrophs : organism that cannot produce their own food

Harmful bacteria

E coli. fecal contamination

anti biotic resistant

Salmonella: source fecal contamination

1 in warm blooded animal

1 in cold blooded

What is there to know about pH in salt water

normal range for pH 8.0 or 8.4

higher number= alkaline

pH in the ocean

Proton: particle found in a nucleus with a positive charge.

acid: a molecule or other entity that can donate a proton or accept an electron pair in reactions

bases:

Results

Pond

bacteria=negative

pH=6.0

chlorine=0

total hardness=0

total nitrate=2.0

nitrate=1.5

pesticide=Invalid

Lead=invalid

Ocean

bacteria=Negative

pH=7.5

chlorine=

total hardness=invalid

total nitrate=0

nitrate=0

pesticide=Invalid

Lead=invalid

Tap

bacteria=negative

pH=6.5

chlorine=0

total hardness=250

total nitrate=1.0

nitrate=0.75

pesticide=Invalid

Lead=Invalid


The results for this text were observed 48 hours after the lab had begun. What I realized after recording the results is that the ocean had a significantly higher amount of pH. Since it has a higher pH level is is the least acidic making the pond the most acidic.

The Food web

Today to begin our ecology unit we were given an activity to learn about the food web. First we were put in groups of 12 and we were given an envelope with different living organism names that are part of the ecosystem like bacteria, cranes, grass, etc. Next we had to attach ourselves by using red yarn to resemble a predator and green yarn to show it was prey. Lastly we noted each living organism with one of our given vocabulary terms.

Water Cycle Demo

Materials

• 1000 ml regular water
• 6 ml Salt
• Saran wrap
• Ice cubes

Procedures

1. Heat up water for about 2 min
2. Dump salt in water and mix
3. Take the cup to act as the lake reservoir to collect precipitation
4. Put saran wrap on bowl w the cup in it
5. The saran wrap acts as an ozone layer
6. Put ice cubes on top of the saran covered bowl

Water Cycle Khan Academy Notes

Water cycle

• It starts as a liquid in the ocean
• Then it vaporizes and rises
• As it rises the water will become tiny water droplets, back in liquid form
• *If it's cold enough it becomes snow
• Then when the droplets get heavy enough they precipitate from the clouds as rain or snow
• Then most of the water will flow into the soil
• Reservoirs of water underneath the ground
• *Rivers as formed by snow melt run off

Sublimation

• Definition: straight from solid to gas
• happens where is cold and very dry

• Most of the freshwater on earth comes from glaciers and permanent snow cover
• Very little of it is from lakes or rivers
• 97.5% is the water on earth is salt water
• Water can stay in glaciers and permafrost for up to 10,000 years

Water Cycle

"Biogeochemical cycles: Figure 3" by OpenStax College, Biology, CC BY 4.0

Biogeochemical cycles: Figure 1 by OpenStax Collage, Concepts of Biology, CC BY 4.0

Ecology Vocabulary

word	part of speech	definition	example
ecology	noun	study of how living things interact with one another and their environment.	Eco= environment Ology=study of
ecosystem	noun	all the living and nonliving things in an area and their interactions
abiotic factor	noun	the last of the ecosystem that is not alive and has never been alive.	sun not alive
biotic factor	noun	the part of an ecosystem that is alive	central park, all the trees insect etc
adaption	noun	a characteristic that helps an organism survive in its environment	cactus thorns to store water
biome	noun	plant and animal community that covers a large part of the earth	aquatic biome
detritivore	noun	an organism (as an earthworm or fungus) that feeds in dead and decomposing organic matter	worm
community	noun	a group of living organisms in a certain area	monkeys
consumers	noun	an organism that survives by eating producers or other consumers in its ecosystem	koalas adapt to eat toxic leaves
carnivore	noun	an organism that eats only other consumers (meat eater)	lion
deforestation	verb	the cutting down and clearing of forest land - will usually lead to increased soil erosion in this area.	destruction of key habitats

Protein Mutation 

proteins formed by long chains of amino acids

when DNA mutated much more becomes mutated bc of system of order

protein synthesis builds new proteins

mutation = error when DNA strand replicated 

missense mutation mutation change protein type

nonsense causes stop in translation of protein

Changes base in sequence

substitution =replace 1 base

deletion remove one extra base

insertion adds ng of base

Frameshift mutation

a genetic mutation caused by insertion or deletions of a number of nucleotides in dNA sequence 

Sickle Mutation

can cause pain

lack of red blood cells

infections

prevents cells from geting oxygen

is when hemoglobin becomes a enlarged stand and making it smaller then can't carry oxygen

Protein Synthesis

used to see move protect from harmful bacteria and they are in charge of all actions in body

Step one DNA in nucleus is split 

one half of DNA called RNA which is one that was split 

Thymine replaced with uracil

RNA will only have uracil

Step 2 RNA leaves the nucleus

RNA is called MRNA cause carry code to ribosomes

code made of codon which is made of 3 nucleotides 

Codons make up instruction for 1 amino acid

ribosome makes proteins

Step 3 RNA enters Ribosome 

when it TRNA enters it codes MRNAs codons to see which amino acids need to be produces

Step 4 amino acids come together to make polypeptide chain

basically many joined amino acids

ribosome RNA is an enzyme in ribosomes

over 60% of the ribosome made of RNA and rest = protein 

Step 5 chain folds into protein 

DNA Splitting and replicating

DNA molecule found in nucleus of cell

chromosomes in DNA are what make up what characteristics we have 

nucleic acids DNA makes up chromosomes that codes for genes and proteins

DNA=Double helix shape

connected by hydrogen bond down middle

there so it can split in half 

single carbon base always connects with double carbon base

sides of DNA= 5 carbon sugar and phosphate group

strands of DNA are anti parallel

Direction go fm 3' to 5' vice versa

DNA Splitting

helicase= enzyme

DNA Replicating: in order for cut to heal DNA split in half like and unzipping motion

it is like a replication fork

after splits it starts and replicates its self in a Y shape

top strand leading strand

Lagging strand = bottom

enzyme DNA primes, adds 4 nitrogenous bases

Lagging strand

goes from 5' to 3'

RNA primes needs to add a new primate adds new primers ever few nucleotides

stripes of DNA separated by Okazaki fragment

primers are short set of nitrogenous bases

RNA primers not DNA have U shape to be replaced by an enzyme

Fun Friday!

STEM Challenge: Water Slide

For our STEM challenge we had to build a water slide for a medium sized lego man and we were being judged on how tall it was, the length and of course how safe the little toy was. My group built our water slide out of wood to attach our cups to and use as a ramp, cups for the toy to go through, tape to hold everything together, and an easel to adhere our cups on and act as a base for everything.

 

Sadly our cups were not aligned well and the toy did not go through one of the cups until we shook it a bit. If I were to do this again I would make the opening of the cup large enough for the toy to easily slide through, use something better to attach the cups to the wood and easel and lastly create a soft landing at the bottom of our slide to keep the toy safe.

Building the Triangle

For our fun Friday assignment in science we had to use six popsicle sticks and make 4 equilateral triangles which we successfully did . We know this is an equilateral because each popsicle stick is 0.5 cm inside and each stick is the 4.5 inches.

R&J Murder Lab Day 3: Extracting DNA

Now all the DNA has collected together so we used a micro pipet to get the DNA out of the test tubes. We the  put the DNA into small capsules.

 

Next we made buffer solution to put on our gel box

Lastly we took out the comb from our box and cut a thin slice of the gel from the top and the bottom to make room for the electrodes and reattached the stainless steel wire electrodes

R&J Murder Lab Day 2: Getting DNA

First we had each suspect chew the inside of their cheek and then rinse and spit with salt water into a cup as DNA. We then mixed water and dish soap and DNA and put it into small tubes and then put 95% ethanol in as well.

R&J Murder Lab Day 1: Electrophoresis Gel Box

We have figured out that Romeo and Juliet did not kill themselves, they were murdered! Today we made an

Electrophoresis Gel Box to let the DNA of our chosen suspects to grow on.

To make the gel we put agar powder, baking soda and distilled water

We then heated it up over a hot plate letting it boil just a bit and waited about 30 minutes until it became transparent

Then lastly we poured the liquid into our box and left it in a room temperature room until it solidified.

DNA Lab Extraction

• Enzyme used to extract in DNA: protease
• Extracting DNA =Chemical breakdown
• Bite Epethelial tissue➡️ then swish salt water in mouth to get cells
• Neurons shape of broom
• *Nucleus=brain of cell
• Inside cells
• DNA are molecules

Brain Anatomy Narrative

(Brain made by my group that influenced the narrative)

The tragic car accident that I was recently in has changed my life forever. The parts of my brain that have been damaged are the brainstem, cerebellum and temporal.

In the accident I went head first towards the seat and my brainstem snapped and I started breathing sporadically. Next I could barely swallow and it felt as if my neck was so miniscule that nothing could go down which lead to me panicking even more. Also at the same time my body was going through all of this my heart rate was fluctuating and then slowly started to go lower and lower. I was unconscious for a week because of all the traumatic events that happened to my brain. As a result of my brain stem being permanently damaged I now have vascular dementia, caused by the interrupted blood supply which has also affected my memory, reasoning and speaking. I also have breathing problems because it is now difficult for my body to receive messages to remember to constantly breathe so sometimes I find myself gasping for air because I forget to breathe and without the air, if i do not remember, my cells will become even more damaged and so many may be injured that I could die which is a fear I now live with everyday.

Another part of my brain that has been impaired is my cerebellum. The main part of my life that this has effected is my speed and balance. Since the cerebellum is responsible for the coordination of voluntary motor movement and balance I often have trouble walking because my injery has caused my to be very lethargic and uncirdinated, even when walking sluggish on smooth even pavement I find a way to collapse or trip. My ability to process information is also very lackadaisical which has caused me trouble trying to get a job because I get fired since I am so slow customers get very annoyed and leave. Another reason they get upset is that I know cannot speak well and it is a challenge to understand my because of my accident I now slur most of the words I say. Now people feel uncomfortable around me because of my abnormal eye movements, they get a bit weirded out and try to be polite by not staring but I can tell that they struggle so they just choose to try to talk or look at me as little as possible.

Luckily only three parts of my brain have been injured and this is the last one, my temporal. First I found out that I now have trouble recalling commands I have been told or information I have learned and matching words with pictures or conversations with memories because the temporal lobes are what would help me take in verbal and visual content. Also me left temporal lesions was responsible for recognition of words and my right temporal damage has caused a loss of shyness when talking which is good and bad. My memory is now highly impaired so I now cannot remember major events or minor events that happen which has caused trouble for people that take care of me because they constantly are reminding me of what is happening and I frequently mix up memories I have.

I chose to write this so that I will always remember what has happened and to help spread awareness of people with brain damage such as myself. Another reason is that I always have to explain to others why I am the way I am so I always go thi this to recall my memory.

Science Lab: Digestive System

The first step of getting the food in your body is by chewing the food in your mouth. First your incisors, the four teeth in the front of your mouth, cuts the food.

Then your molars grind your food into more petite pieces so your body can mechanically break the food down. The amylase, the enzymes located in your mouth, chemically break the complex carbohydrates into simple sugars, after this the tongue shapes the food so it is able to swallow and it goes to the esophagus. The esophagus is a tunnel of muscle that connects the pharynx and is then fronted by the upper esophageal sphincter and ends at the lower esophageal sphincter. After that the food goes to the stomach and temporarily stores the foods and liquids. Then the stomach produces digestive juices like hydrochloric acid and pepsin which break down proteins. The food goes to the small intestine through the pyloric sphincter. The small intestine is where the absorption of minerals and nutrients occurs. The food first goes through the Duodenum where the food is mixed in with enzymes from the pancreas and and bile from the gallbladder. Then it goes to the Jejunum  which absorbs all the nutrients. The last part of the intestine is the Ileum which soaks up the bile acids that return to the liver. Next it goes through the large intestine which mainly absorbs the water from the chyme and get rid of waste in the body. It also helps absorb vitamins made by commensal bacteria. This bacteria breaks down fibers and sugars into short chain fatty acids. It also forms the feces and exits through the rectum.

Cellular Respiration Lab

The first process to making ATP, which is what provide cells with energy needed to do any type of function, is called Glycolysis which happens in the Cytoplasm. The first step to Glycolysis is to break down the sugar so that the cells can use it. Since sugar is a 6 carbon ring it needs to be broken down into 2 3 carbon chains, which are called Pyruvate. The ATP is used to breakdown the glucose, since the ATP loses a phosphate during this so it turns into ADP. Out of this process we get 2 Pyruvate and 4 ATP. Next is the Krebs Cycle, which occurs in the inner membrane of the mitochondria, where the Pyruvate enters. First the Pyruvate combine with oxygen and leave the cell as CO2, and the 2 Pyruvate left make Acetyl Coenzyme A, then the NAD+ collects a hydrogen and becomes NADH. Out of this cycle another 2 ATP are created so there is 6 ATP, and creates 6 CO2 which you breathe out. The last part of this process is the Electron Transport Train which happens in the mitochondria. This is where a chain of channel proteins across the inner membrane of the mitochondria and the proteins will swap the electrons to send hydrogen protons from the inside the center of the mitochondria across the inner membrane to the outer part of the mitochondria. Then the ATP synthase brings the protons back in. The energy created by this proton flow squeezes ADP with some phosphates to make ATP. Each electron from the 10 NADH from the Krebs Cycle produce 3 ATP, and the 2 FADH generate 2 ATP. In the whole process of cellular respiration for every 1 molecule of glucose 38 ATPs are created.